Eugene Nida

Eugene A. Nida(November 11, 1914 direful 25, 2011) was alinguistwho authentic the energising- equating lmarginr- enunciateing surmisal. Nida was born inOklahoma City,Oklahomaon November 11, 1914. He became a Christian at a young age, when he responded to the altar presage at his church to accept Christ as my Saviour He graduated from theUniversity of Californiain 1936. After graduating he at carryed multitude Wycliffe, where Bible description guess was taught. Later Nida became a founding admit member ofWycliffe Bible Translators, a sister organization of theSummer be of Linguistics.In 1937, Nida under likewisek studies at theUniversity of Southern California, where he obtained a Masters spot in New Testament Greek in 1939. In 1943, Nida received his Ph. D. in Linguistics from theUniversity of Michigan, His Ph. D. dissertation,A Synopsis of position Syntax, was the first complete analysis of a major crying according to the immediate-constituent theory. He began his rush as alinguistwith theAmeri erect Bible Society(ABS). He was quickly promoted to Associate escritoire for Versions, then disciplineed as Executive Secretary for Translations until his retirement.Nida retired in the early 1980s, although he continued to pull up s tamps lectures in universities each around the world, and lived in Madrid, Spain andBrussels,Belgium. He died in Madrid on August 25, 2011 aged 96. Nida was instrumental in engineering the joint effort among theVaticanand theUnited Bible Societies(UBS) to produce cross-denominational Bibles in renderings across the globe. This work began in 1968 and was carried on in accordance with Nidas exposition linguistic rule of Functional Equivalence. His ploughsh atomic number 18s in general Nida has been a pioneer in the fields ofedition theoryandlinguistics.His most nonable contri plainlyion to exposition theory is impulsive Equivalence, as well as receiven as Functional Equivalence. Nida in like manner develope d the componential-analysis technique, which split wrangling into their components to help determine comp ar in rendition (e. g. bachelor = man deal + unmarried). This is, perhaps, non the best example of the technique, though it is the most well-known. Nidas high-powered- comparing theory is a darling deal held in opposition to the studys ofphilologistswho maintain that an gaugement of the first school schoolbookual matterual matter(ST) an be achieved by assessing the inter-animation of words on the page, and that meaning is self-contained within the school school school text (i. e. much to a greater extent focused on achieving semantic equating). This theory, a coherent with cultivateer(a) theories of remainder in translating, ar elaborated in his essay article of faiths of Correspondence,where Nida begins by asserting that given that no twain speech communications ar identical, either in the meanings given to identical symbols or in the ways in which s ymbols ar ordered in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute commensurateness surrounded by linguistic processs.Hence, there can be no liberaly exact translations. While the collision of a translation whitethorn be close to the reliable, there can be no identity operator in detail. Some of his theories in detail First major constituent Dynamic equivalence Nida then sets forth the disagreeences in translation, as he would account for it, within three grassroots factors (1) The nature of the capacity in whatever messages the topic is of primary term, and in new(prenominal)s the number necessity be given a higher precedence. 2) The purpose of the author and of the translator to give information on some(prenominal)(prenominal) form and content to amaze at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she whitethorn understand the full implications of the message for imperative purposes that aim at not provided understanding the transla tion however also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the translation. (3) The quality of interview prospective audiences differ both indecoding readiness and in potential interest. Nida brings in the reminder that while there ar no such things as identical analogouss in translating, what one essential in translating seek to do is find the circumferent inseparable equivalent.Here he identifies 2 basic orientations in translating based on two different types of equivalence Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E). Principle of fighting(a) equivalence * General instauration In Toward a apprehension of Translating, Nida first determine forward the principle of high-voltage equivalence which he defines as the kind surrounded by sensory receptor and message should be substanti tot eachyy the identical as that which existed between the legitimate receptors and the message (Nida,1964, p. 59). Following this principle, energizing equivalence, as defined by Ni da, is to chuck in the receptor language the closest inwrought equivalence of the ancestor-language message(Nida and Taber, 1969 12). Nida (1964 167) particularly stresses that a congenital rendering must fit the receptor language and culture as a whole the context of the particular message and the receptor-language audience. To put it plain, either the meaning or form should not heavy(a) hostile.The essence of dynamic equivalence is the receptors response, in Nidas own term, the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the alike manner as the receptors in the reference point language (Nida and Taber, 1969 68). The reaction or response is based on the comprehensive reception of the message, not entirely understanding the meaning or content, but also feeling in the way the true readers do. By laying stress on the receptors response, he underlines the improvement to the source text by the receptors subjectivity an d aesthetic sense. The essential features of the principle we must first know about the essential features of this principle and D-E translation. As Nida himself points out, the essential features of D-E translation consists of the following points (1) equivalent, which points toward the source-language message. (2) natural, which points toward the receptor language (3) closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation (Nida, 1964). All these points aim at arousing resembling response between the source text readers and the take aim text readers.A. Equivalent As mentioned above, this aims at reproducing the message of the schoolmaster text. This is the basic requirement of D-E translation, as is with whatsoever other kind of translation. That is to say, to produce a D -E translation, the translator must aim primarily at transport the meaning of the original text, and to do anything else is essentially wrong to his task as a t ranslator, because translation is basically a kind of communication (Nida and Taber, 1982). B. native A D-E translation is directed primarily towards the similarity of response.To achieve this purpose, the translation must be natural, for it is of great importance to arousing in the pose readers a response similar to that of the original readers. To be natural, the equivalent forms should not be foreign either in wrong of form, or in terms of meaning, which means that the translation should not reveal any signs of its non-native source (Nida, 1975). Nida stresses that naturalness in a D-E translation must fit these three aspects (1) The receptor language and culture as a whole, 2) The context of the particular message, (3) The receptor-language audience (Nida, 1964). He hike up remarks The best translation does not sound like a translation It should not exhibit in its well-formed and stylistic forms any trace of awkwardness or strangeness It should studiously avoid translation ese he defines as evening gown fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and the impact of die message (Nida and Taber, 1982). C. juxtaposed Closest here is of a double nature.On the one hand, it indicates that equivalence in translation can never be absolute identity, because neediness occurs in all forms of communication, whether it involves translation or not (Bassenet and Lefevere, 1990, p. 35). It can only be an approximation, because no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which such symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identity in detail.On the other hand, since equivalence in translation is just a kind of approximation, not absolute identity, it naturally results in the realizableness to establish equivalence between the source text and the direct text on various degrees or in di fferent aspects. However, it is the highest degree that a D-E translation is expected to strive for. In other words, though loss of meaning is inevitable, the translator should try his best to reduce it to the minimum. D. Similar solution This is the principal aim of the D-E translation and all the above three points are directed to it.The term response here refers to the way in which receptors of a text understand the text, including the effect the text produces on them while similar response involves a similarity of two relations the relation of the target text readers to the target text should be substantially the identical to that of the source text readers to the source text. That is to say, the target text readers must not only know how the source text readers must have understood the content of the text, but they should also be able to appreciate some of the impact and appeal which such a text must have had for t he source text readers (Jin Di and Nida, 1984).Formal Corres pondence in opposition to dynamic equivalence Nida puts forward dynamic equivalence in opposition to full-dress correspondence. In speaking of naturalness, he is strongly against translationese as we mentioned Basically, a musket ball equivalence translation, as Nida (1964, 165) states, is source-oriented, which is designated to reveal as much as possible the form and content of the original message, that is, to match as closely as possible the formal elements like grammatical units, consistency in word usage, meanings in terms of the source context, just to name some. David Crystal, J.R. Firth, Catford and other linguists and translation theorists agree upon the six aims of formal equivalence, namely, phonetic, phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactical and semantic equivalence. We may pass more light on formal equivalence or correspondence by citing Catfords view. Catford and his views of equivalence in translation Catfords approach to translation equivalence clearly di ffers from that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday.Catford has defined formal correspondence as identity of function of equivalent souvenirs in two linguistic systems for him, a formal correspondent is any TL /target language/ category which may be give tongue to to occupy, as nearly as possible, the same place in the frugality of the TL as the given SL/source language/ category occupies in the SL (Catford, 1965 32). His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the patterns of types and channels of translation. Catford proposed really broad types of translation in terms of three criteria 1.The outcome of translation (full translationvspartial translation) 2. The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translationvs. unbounded translation) 3. The levels of language i nvolved in translation (total translationvs. restricted translation). We will refer only to the arcminute criterion of translation, since this is the one that concerns the construct of equivalence, and we will then move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts, as elaborated by Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence.Inrank-bound translationan equivalent is sought-after(a) in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme encountered in the ST. Inunbounded translationequivalences are not tied to a particular rank, and we may additionally find equivalences at sentence, clause and other levels. Catford finds five of these ranks or levels in both English and French. Thus, aformal correspondencecould be said to exist between English and French if relations between ranks have most the same configuration in both languages, as Catford claims they do.As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as departures f rom formal correspondence in the process of acquittance from the SL to the TL (ibid. 73). Catford implores that there are two main types of translation shifts, namelylevel shifts,where the SL item at one linguistic level (e. g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e. g. lexis), andcategory shiftswhich are divided into four types 1. Structure-shifts,which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT 2.Class-shifts,when a SL item is translated with a TL item which run shorts to a different grammatical class, i. e. a verb may be translated with a noun 3. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank 4. Intra-system shifts,which occur when SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system (ibid. 80). For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.The anteriority of Dynamic Equivalence over Formal Correspo ndence In view of the difficulty in retaining formal correspondence, and of the fact that all communication is goal-oriented, no matter intralingual or interlingual communication, the move from the sources intention to the receptors interpretation is quite natural and reasonable. So Nidas dynamic equivalence seems a good way to further the interlingual communication and it is justified to say that dynamic equivalence often has antecedency over formal correspondence. C. W.Orr likens translation to painting the painter does not reproduce every detail of the landscape, he selects what seems best to him, and for a translator, it is the spirit, not only the letter that he asks to embody in his own var. (Nida, 1964 162). Merits and demerits of dynamic equivalence theory As is known to all, translation in essence is a kind of communication, and its main task is to let the target reader understand the meaning of the original text. Whether a translation is good or not depends largely on w hether the target reader understands the original message adequately.However, traditionally, the adequateness of translation is judged only on the basis of the correspondence in words and grammar between the source and target languages, and this is sometimes misguide (Nida, 1993). Since translating means communication, evaluating the adequacy of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices. In short, it cannot stop with a comparison of the literal forms of the source and target texts.Instead, it should take into shootation the readers response and comparison should be make between the way in which the original receptor understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text (Nida, 1993 p. 116). Merits It has a lot of merits to take into consideration the readers response and focus on the similarity between the response of th e source text readers and that of the target text readers, which include the following aspects Rationality of winning into Consideration the Readers Response Since translation is mainly intended for its readers to understand, quite naturally, we should take into consideration how the readers interpret the translation, namely, their response to the target text, and compare it with that of the source text readers to the source text. Only when the response o f the source text readers and that of target text readers are similar can we say that the translation is adequate. If we do not take into consideration the readers response when judging the adequacy of a translation, it is often misleading.As we know, sometimes what seems to be equivalent translation of the original text in terms of lexical, grammatical features may actually interpolate the meaning. Most earlier approaches to translation have focused attention upon the relationship of the source text to the target text, whether in terms of form or content. The concept of dynamic equivalent translating introduces an important new dimension, namely, the relationship of receptors to the various(prenominal) texts. It deals not merely signs as signs, but focuses on the ways in which verbal signs have meaning for receptors.It is really within such a context that discussions of transnational adequacy and acceptability make sense (Jin Di and Nida, 1984). In short, taking into consideration the readers response helps to reproduce the original message adequately and guarantee equivalence between the source text and the target text in real sense. B. Avoiding the Debate over Literal Translation versus warrant Translation Whether to translate literally or freely is an issue that has long been pass ond in the translation circle.Some scholars argue for literal translation while others argue for free translation. It seems that the two views will never reconcile with each other. However, it is no use arguing which is be tter, since literal translation and free translation both have their validity and limitations. Instead, it is more helpful, in the authors opinion, to deal with this issue from a different perspective and provide a principle of translation that can well combine them. In a sense, the principle of dynamic equivalence may serve as an effective means to turn away the debate.Since it focuses on the similar response, any kind of translation, either literal or free, is adequate, so long as it can arouse the similar response. Thus, the debate over literal translation versus free translation tends to be useless, and the select between them depends on which can better bring about the closest natural equivalent and elicit substantially the same response. C. sacking the Translator from the Binding of the Original Verbal Form and Increasing Translatability Languages differ from each other, and each language has its own peculiarities.Sometimes the ways of using language are peculiar to a curr ent language. In this case, if the translator focuses on the original verbal form, he is usually incompetent. However, if he turns aside from the verbal form and focuses on the similar response, he can sometimes separate the nut. D. More readable and understandable text The advantage of dynamic equivalence is that it usually produces a more readable/understandable Bible version. Early translations of Bible were sometimes obscure and may reach the edge of unintelligibility as they were keen on preserving the original text. DemeritsNidas dynamic equivalence theory is of great practical value, as well verified by his Bible translation. However, it is not almighty and perfect. There are still some doubts which invite argument. A. The abstract nature of dynamic equivalence as a translation criterion The first doubt cast upon the theory is that it is too abstract to be used as a criterion to judge the quality of a translation. Nida maintains, to measure dynamic equivalence, we can only justifiedly compare the equivalence of response, rather than the degree of agreement between the original source and the later receptors (Nida and Taber, 1969 23).However, the measurement is intuitive, dependent upon subjective judgment, for how can we know exactly the responses of the source language receptors, particularly if the source text was scripted ages ago? Moreover, the receptors Nida has in mind are the specific readers of certain text and it is their responses that are required to judge the quality of a translation, but he does not request the average readers of the translation to check with the source text, since they do not know or just know a short(p) source language, that is to say, those who judge virtually are not average readers but the critics of a translation or linguists.B. The degree of naturalness in translation Moreover, in speaking of naturalness, Nida insists that the best translation should not sound like a translation, but I think otherwise for two rea sons Firstly, language and culture are inseparable. Language is an integral part of culture, tooshie Lyon says, and that the lexical distinctions drawn by each language will tend to reflect the culturally-important features of objects, institutions and activities in the society in which the language operates community that uses a particular language as its means of verbal expression.As translation aims to alter one to get exposed to foreign works, while you are translating a foreign language text, you are introducing its culture as well. The change of some images bearing cultural features will undoubtedly diminish the cultural stretch along of its language and leave unfinished the task of cultural transmission. By naturalizing the translation, dynamic equivalence, to certain degree, has ignored the assimilating ability of peoples.In spite of the fact that differences do exist, the similarities between men are finally much greater than the differences, and all members of the spec ies share primal attributes of perception and response which are manifest in speech utterances and which can therefore be grasped and translated. In sum, to sound natural to the receptor is good, while to keep foreignness or strangeness to certain degree is also permissible. In this sense, as far as the preservation of the cultural elements of the source language is concerned, it is desirable that a translation read like a translation. C. The simplification of the source languageWhat also comes under review is that dynamic equivalence risks simplifying the source language, even decreasing its literary value. mavin of the classifiable features of literary works is the frequent use of figurative language and fresh expressions, and the authors real intention is to be sought between the lines. If intelligibility or the communicative effect of the receptor language text is always given the priority and all the figurative images in the source text are left out, or all that is implicit i s make explicit, then, despite its intelligibility, the receptor language text reads boring and fails the purpose of literature.Therefore, in translating secular literary works, unlike Bible translation, intelligibility should not be only when stressed. In later years Nida has increasingly realized the problem and in his work From One Language to Another, he no longer agrees to the priority of intelligibility but places equal weight on intelligibility, readability and acceptability. D. Modification of Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Correspondence Aware of the defects in his dynamic equivalence theory, Nida continues to modify and perfect his theories, including those concerning formal correspondence.He acknowledges that any element in nexus with receptor language text is meaningful, including the form For effective impact and appeal, form cannot be separated from content, since form itself carries so much meaning(Nida, 1989 5). If form is sacrificed, meaning is damaged as well, so he cautions the translator not to easily change the form and asks them to achieve as much formal correspondence as possible, which marks a shift from total cut down of form to attaching certain importance to formal elements.Mention should also be made of his replacing dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence in From One Language to Another. No matter how varied the ways of expression of languages are, he holds, they have the same or similar functions, therefore, functional equivalence seems more entire and precise. E. Risk of imprecise translation The translator is freer from the grammatical forms of the original language, he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language.That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong. Second major contribution Componential a nalysis To determine the meaning of any form contrast must be found, for there is no meaning apart from significant differences. Nida (1975 31) states If all the universe were blue, there would be no blueness, since there would be zero to contrast with blue. The same is true for the meanings of words.They have meaning only in terms of systematic contrasts with other words which share certain features with them but contrastwith them in respect to other features. Nida in Componential Analysis of Meaning (1975 32) categorize the types of components into two main types, i. e. common component and diagnostic or distinctive component. a. Common component. This is the central component which is shared by all the lexemes in the same semantic ambit or lexical field. b. Diagnostic or distinctive components.They serve to distinguish the meaning from others from the same domain. A very simple example to explain these two types is provided by the words man, woman, boy, girl, and other related words in English (Leech, 1976 96). These words all belong to the semantic field of human race and the relations between them may be represented by the following matrix. components man woman boy girl human + + + + adult + + - - male + - + - Table 1. Common and Diagnostic Components of the words man, woman, boy, and girl.In the semantic domain of man, woman, boy, and girl, human is the common component, and they are distinguished by adult, male, female as the diagnostic components. The meanings of the psyche items can then be expressed by combinations of these features Man +human +adult +male cleaning lady +human +adult -male Boy +human -adult +male Girl +human -adult -male Before going further with the componential approach, it is important to consider possible differences in the roles of diagnostic components (Nida, 1975 38).The differences can be best designated as (1) implicational, (2) core, and (3) inferential. Implicational component are those implied by a particular mean ing, though they do not form an essential part of the core meaning. On the contrary, implicational components remain associated with a meaning, even when other components are negativized by the context. The word regret has three diagnostic components (1) previous wrong behavior, (2) corrasion for what has been done, and (3) change of behavior, and the first component is implicational. Whether in a positive or negative context, e. . he repented of what he did or he didnt repent of what he did, the implication is that the person in question did something wrong. The negation affects the core components which demarcate the central aspects of the event, but does not modify the implicational component. The inferential components of meanings are those which may be inferred from the use of an expression, but which are not regarded as obligatory, core elements. In the expression the ships officer shot the thief, the thief was killed is the inference, and without further contextual condit ion assumed to be the case.However, it is possible to deny this inference, e. g. the ships officer shot the thief but didnt kill him. At the same time an inferential component may be explicitly stated, e. g. the policeman shot the thief to death or the policeman shot and killed the thief. culture Nida is a great figure that contributed great efforts to the development of Translation Theories. His many books reflect a prominent translator and researcher as well. His major contribution was the introduction of dynamic equivalence which represented a shift in attention of the process of translation.Nidas dynamic equivalence contributes a rare insight into translating and helps to create an atmosphere of treating different languages and cultures from an entirely new perspective. The concept of dynamic equivalence, despite having some disadvantages but perfection is inaccessible and the concept really formed a milestone along the road of translation studies and theories Works cited 1. Bassnet, Susan & Andre Lefevere, eds.. Translation History & Culture. London Casell, 1990. home run 2. Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of translation. London Oxford University Press, 1965. bring out 3. Eugene A. Nida. Wikipedia Free Ecyclopedia. Web. 7 April 2013. 4. Jin Di Eugene A. Nida. . On Translation with special Reference to Chinese and English. Beijing chinaware Translation Publish Corporation, 1984. print. 5. Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden E. J. Brill, 1964. Print. 6. Nida, Eugene A. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford Stanford University Press, 1975. Print 7. Nida, Eugene A. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993. Print. 8. Nida, Eugene A. Charles R. Taber. The theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden E. J. Brill, 1982. Print. .